Conjunctivitis: Causes, Modes of Infection, Preventive Measures, and Treatment.
Image: infected eye.
Introduction:
Conjunctivitis, commonly known as “pink eye,” is a highly contagious eye condition that affects the conjunctiva, the thin transparent layer covering the white part of the eye and the inner surface of the eyelids. This condition can be caused by various factors, and understanding its causes, modes of infection, preventive measures, and treatment is essential to protect both personal health and the well-being of those around us.
image: conjunctiva
1. Causes of Conjunctivitis:
Conjunctivitis can result from different causes, including viral, bacterial, allergic, and irritant agents. Viral conjunctivitis is the most common and is typically caused by viruses such as adenovirus. Bacterial conjunctivitis is caused by bacteria like Staphylococcus aureus or Streptococcus pneumoniae. Allergic conjunctivitis arises due to allergens like pollen or pet dander, while irritant conjunctivitis can be triggered by exposure to smoke, chemicals, or foreign particles.
Image: staphylococcus.
2. Modes of Infection:
Conjunctivitis is highly contagious and can spread through direct contact with infected eye secretions, contaminated hands, or shared objects like towels or pillowcases. It is also possible for the infection to be transmitted indirectly through respiratory droplets, making it crucial to maintain proper hygiene and take precautionary measures.
3. Preventive Measures:
To reduce the risk of conjunctivitis, individuals should adopt the following preventive measures:
– Frequent handwashing: Regularly washing hands with soap and water can prevent the transmission of infectious agents from contaminated surfaces to the eyes.
– Avoiding eye touching: Refrain from touching or rubbing your eyes, as it can introduce pathogens into the eyes.
– Personal hygiene: Avoid sharing personal items such as towels, eye makeup, or contact lenses with others.
– Protection during allergy season: Wear sunglasses or protective eyewear outdoors to shield the eyes from allergens.
– Proper cleaning: Disinfect frequently touched surfaces, like doorknobs and countertops, to limit the spread of viruses and bacteria.
4. Treatment:
The treatment of conjunctivitis varies based on its underlying cause:
– Viral conjunctivitis: This type typically clears up on its own within 1-2 weeks. Applying warm compresses and using artificial tears can help alleviate discomfort.
– Bacterial conjunctivitis: Antibiotic eye drops or ointments prescribed by a healthcare professional can effectively treat bacterial conjunctivitis.
– Allergic conjunctivitis: Avoiding allergens is essential. Over-the-counter antihistamine eye drops may help relieve symptoms.
– Irritant conjunctivitis: Eliminating exposure to the irritant and using artificial tears can aid in recovery.
Regardless of the type, it is essential to seek professional medical advice to determine the appropriate treatment and avoid potential complications.
Conclusion:
Conjunctivitis is a common eye condition that can affect individuals of all ages. By understanding its causes, modes of infection, preventive measures, and treatment options, we can take proactive steps to protect ourselves and others from this contagious eye ailment. Practicing good hygiene, avoiding eye touching, and seeking timely medical attention when needed will contribute to faster recovery and minimize the spread of conjunctivitis in our communities.
In the annals of history, there exist tales of remarkable creatures, majestic and legendary in their own right. One such story unfolds in the form of the last known giant Irish Greyhound of 1902, a creature of immense stature and indomitable spirit that left an indelible mark on the hearts of those who were fortunate enough to witness its presence.
During the early 20th century, the Irish Greyhound was already a breed known for its gr ace, speed, and elegance. However, amidst the ranks of these noble hounds, one stood apart—a giant among giants.
This extraordinary Greyhound, known simply as “Fionn,” was a sight to behold. Standing at an astonishing 36 inches at the shoulder and weighing a remarkable 200 pounds, Fionn was unlike any other of his kind. His sleek, silver coat glistened in the sunlight, and his eyes held a depth of wisdom and intelligence that set him apart from the rest.
Fionn’s legacy as the last giant Irish Greyhound began with his birth in 1898. Raised by a devoted breeder named Alistair O’Connor in the rolling hills of County Kerry, Ireland, Fionn displayed remarkable strength and agility from an early age. His sheer size was awe-inspiring, and it wasn’t long before his reputation as a gentle giant spread throughout the region.
Fionn’s most notable achievement was his remarkable racing career. Unlike his smaller counterparts, who excelled in short sprints, Fionn was built for endurance. He could maintain incredible speeds over long distances, earning him a reputation as an unstoppable force on the racetrack. Spectators marveled as they watched him effortlessly outpace his competition, his powerful strides carrying him to victory time and time again.
Beyond his prowess as a racer, Fionn possessed a gentle and amiable disposition that endeared him to everyone he met. Children in particular were drawn to him, and Fionn would often visit local schools, where he became a beloved figure among the students. His calm demeanor and warm nature made him an ideal therapy dog, offering comfort and solace to those in need.
As the years passed, Fionn’s stature and legend continued to grow. He became a symbol of resilience and strength, an embodiment of the Irish spirit. His image graced postcards, newspapers, and even commemorative stamps, solidifying his place in history.
However, with the passage of time, Fionn’s advanced age began to catch up with him. In 1902, at the age of four, he ran his final race, a poignant moment that marked the end of an era.
Retired to a life of leisure and comfort, Fionn spent his remaining years in the loving care of Alistair O’Connor and his family.
When Fionn passed away in 1904, Ireland mourned the loss of its last giant Irish Greyhound. His legacy lived on in the stories and memories of those who had been touched by his presence, and his name became synonymous with courage, resilience, and the enduring spirit of the Irish people.
In the tale of Fionn, the last giant Irish Greyhound of 1902, we find not only a remarkable creature but also a symbol of the extraordinary bond between humans and their animal companions. Fionn’s story serves as a reminder that greatness can come in many forms, and sometimes, it is the gentle giants among us who leave the most lasting impression on our hearts and in the pages of history.
Mahant Amar Bharti Ji is an Indian Sadhu who is known for raising his right arm for 48 years and never putting it down for his devotion to Shiva.
Bharati worked as a clerk in New Delhi until he quit his job and left his family and friends in 1970 in order to develop his devotion to Shiva, one of the principal deities of Hinduism. After quitting his job, he felt like he was still connected to his old life and raised his arm starting in 1973 as a sign of his devotion and “to militate against wars and support world peace”. He spent two years of his life in severe pain by doing this, but later lost all sensation in his arm and left the muscles in his arm atrophied. Many of his followers have taken inspiration from his actions, calling it a “beacon of hope” and even raising their own arms for years.
Ekaterina Lisina has the longest legs among women in the world, is the world’s tallest model, and as far as anyone can tell, has the biggest female feet in Russia.
Ekaterina Lisina holds the Guinness World Record for having the longest legs among women. According to the institute, her left leg measures 52.3 inches while the right one is an even 52 inches long.
The model stands 6’9″ tall, and realized rather early that her height would be one of her biggest assets. With a successful career in basketball where height is of the essence, the young Russian’s foresight allowed her to find favor in both sports and modeling industries early on.
Ekaterina Lisina owes it all to her family’s genetics, as not a single member clocks in under six feet. In addition to her 6’6″ brother, 6’5″ father, and 6’1″ mother, Lisina’s son is already much taller than his peers — and he hasn’t even reached puberty.
According to Inquisitr, however, glaringly towering above most everyone else wasn’t always a plus. It’s not exactly the most welcoming trait for shy, insecure teenage boys — though it has given her ample opportunities outside of school, which she successfully harnessed into a lucrative identity.
Ekaterina Lisina’s Early life:
Born in Penza, Russia on October 15, 1987, Yekaterina Viktorovna Lisina holds yet another Guinness World Record directly attributed to her long-legged genetics. According to Metro, her 6’9″ height officially makes her the world’s tallest model. As far as anyone can tell, she also has the biggest female feet in all of Russia — at size 13.
Her father, Viktor Lisina, recalled noticing his daughter’s glaringly long legs as soon as she was born.
“When we were picking up Ekaterina from the hospital, we noticed straight away that her legs were really long and her body mainly consisted of them,” he said. “[She] got them from her parents.”
The 31-year-old record-holder has since developed an entire ethos around her body, in relation to what it has allowed her to accomplish. Doors have opened — and she isn’t shy about using those legs to walk through them.
“God blessed me with a fabulous height so that I can reach the stars,” she said.
The Olympic Athlete:
“When I was 16 I was already 6 foot 6,” Lisina said. “I played basketball professionally since I was 15.”. For her brother Sergei, what Lisina accomplished before turning 30 years old — playing professional basketball, representing her country at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, using her height to start a modeling career — has been nothing short of inspiring.“Am I proud of her?” Sergei asked rhetorically. “Of course, I am. She realized quite quickly that [her height] gave her a huge advantage in a sport, which she started doing professionally almost straight away.”
Her social life as a young, exorbitantly tall girl was often plagued by bullies and distressing encounters. Lisina’s fundamental reason for seeking out these Guinness titles is that she wants “to be an inspiration to girls who are not very confident.”
“It was a pretty difficult time at school, being so tall,” she said. “I’d have to call my older brother to communicate with the boys.”
Though she always felt comfortable and secure at home, Lisina was pretty self-conscious in the outside world. Even to this day, she struggles to find pants that actually fit her, feminine shoes in her size, sitting on a standard airplane seat, or squeezing into a car.
There are, of course, a few benefits.
“I can walk much faster than other people,” she said. “I’m really happy to have the longest legs in the world. The first time I heard this news, I was driving a car and I almost crashed it!”
Life For Ekaterina Lisina From Such Great Heights:
“All my life I had people looking at me in the street,” Ekaterina Lisina told The Sun. “In Russia they don’t ask for pictures or anything, they just stay silent and stare.” “It can be funny when you are sitting and someone comes up to you and doesn’t expect you to be so tall, then I stand up and I can see the reaction on their faces.”
As it stands, Lisina is an Olympic medal-winning, Guinness World Record-holding, professional model with over 1.2 million followers on her Instagram.
In the end, the long-limbed Russian made her lifelong dream come true — after being awarded one of the most prestigious medals in sports one could possibly hope to win.
There are many bizarre and unnatural places on planet Earth. Some of them have been discovered, some have been not. Those that have been discovered evoke curiosity among all and sundry. One such mysterious village exists in Mexico. It is called ‘Village of blind’ because every living objects – both human being and animals – lose their vision after staying in it for some time.
The village is called is ‘Tiltepec’. It is said that the newborn have vision at the time of birth. However, after a few days they lose their vision.
Folklore says that the people blame a cursed tree ‘for their blindness’. They say once anyone sees the tree, the person loses vision. Called ‘Labhajuela’, no one is ready to destroy the tree as they feel it will cause harm to them. They say that even when birds and animals come in contact with the tree, they turn lose their eyesight.
Scientists however, have a different explanation to offer. They say that a large number of toxic producing flies are present in the village.
It bites both human beings and animals. They say that once the fly bites a villager the person loses his eyesight. Approximately 300 people stay in 70 houses in the village. Except for an exit and entry door, the houses do not have any windows. Luckily however, a few in the village still retain their vision and they are the lifeline for those who have gone blind.
The stock market, also known as the share market, is a platform where the stocks of publicly-traded companies are bought and sold. The stock market is an important aspect of the global financial system, as it provides a means for companies to raise capital by selling shares of their ownership to the public, and for investors to earn a return by investing in these companies. The stock market can also be used as a barometer of the overall health of an economy, as fluctuations in stock prices can indicate changes in investor sentiment and market conditions. In the stock market, investors can buy and sell stocks through a stockbroker or online brokerage service. The prices of stocks are determined by supply and demand, and can rise or fall based on a variety of factors, including company performance, economic conditions, and market sentiment.
Watch this video to understand with a simple example.Download here
When I was a kid, my mom used to tell this story every evening in episodes. I don’t remember all the events but I can give a brief summary of this story. Now I realised, it was a folktale my mom used to narrate it every evening to let me sleep. During that time I was around 5-6 years old.
Apa Palang
My mom never went to school. During her childhood, they used to live in village where there was no road connectivities at that time. They survived by jhum cultivation. She told me that this story was very famous among them which passed on through orally by their parents and grand parents. There is no any written records of this story. My mom expired on 2007. I have no any other sources to find that story.
So I am writing this in briefly to see if there is someone who have heard this story from their parents and knows better than me. If you are reading this please don’t hesitate to contact me. Here
This story is dedicated to my loving Mom ❤️
Mom❤️
So, the story goes like this:
Once there was a remote village in the jungle of Arunachal Pradesh. Where only 5-6 families used to live. Far from all kinds of modern civilizations, with no road connections and electricity. They live like hunters and gatherers. They also learned jhum cultivations because arunachal is a hilly area. They live in tribal kutcha house build up of bamboos and banana leaves. Imagine, it was a dark rainforest no roads, no electricity.
During day, all the elders went to jungle for farming, they only return back after sunset. They keep their childrens at home with elder brothers and sisters. Kids and youths duty was to look after their younger toddlers.
There lived a monster named APA PALANG who has thick hairy body like bear with long vampire teeth. Tall and very scary appearances with long dirty nails… Bloods dripping from the vampire teeth. The Apa palang loves to eat the heart, eyes and liver of toddlers. Sometimes he also eat the elder kids and coil up their intestines in the kitchen where they cook foods(chuju).
Apa palang eating a baby
All the villagers got scared and there were chaos all around the villages. Many times villagers gathered and prepared with bows and arrows to hunt that monster but to no avail. Villagers were frustrated and was angry too. The apa palang comes to the village every alternate day when the elders and parents goes for cultivation. He doesn’t comes when elders stay back at village.
Hadudachar
In that village there was a man who’s name was Hadudachar. He was young and smart. He stays back at Village with kids to hunt the monster. But he failed. One day, when hadudachar and his wife came back from jungle they saw that their kids intestine was coiled up in their kitchen on Chuju(in local dialect). Chuju is where they cook foods and roast meat.
Emi is where chuju is kept
Hadudachar was so furious at that moment. Her wife cried for many days after losing her kid. She didn’t even went for farming for 3-4 days crying in sorrow and grief. She cursed and blamed Hadudachar.
Hadudachar wifeFrustrated villagers
Hadudachar was also in grief and sorrow after losing his beautiful daughter. Everyday his wife cursed him for doing nothing for their daughter. All she want was revenge. She want hadudachar to hunt down apa palang and kill him mercilessly.
After so many failed attempt One day hadudachar come up with an idea. He took some uff terr(local name) leaves of a creeper that smells like fart. (Uff means fart. Terr means creepers.) He also took some rice and lied down on the way from where apa palang comes. Hadudachar took his life on risk on that day. Apa palang could have kill him on the spot . He lied down on the ground blocking his asshole with uff terr and sprinkled some rice on the ground pretending to be a deadbody.
Hadudachar pretending death
After many hours, the Apa palang passed by and noticed that Hadudachar was lying on the ground. Apa palang, slowly goes near to confirm if he is really death. Because apa palang was afraid of Hadudachar. Apa palang saw the rice on the ground and thought those were maggots. And he pull out the uff terr from Hadudachar’s ass, the pungent smell of his fart mixed with uff terr made him confused and thought Hadudachar is death. He smiled and walked around hadudachar and said ” Hadudachar Sippe Chapa Hey hey” ( hadudachar is death heyhey.. smiled)
Apa palang carried him all the way to his hole. Hole was vertical in the ground and had a rope to climb up. He tried to carry hadudachar inside his hole but everytime he tries to take him in, Hadudachar spread his legs & hand.
After trying many times apa palang went into take his weapon and called his wife and kids to carry the piece of meats. As soon as he went inside. Hadudachar, collected some woods and big stones. And burnt the stones till it gets hot.
Hadudachar heard some voice coming from the hole. Saying.. Aab ngam nyiru ngam, aab ngam nyipum ngam, aab ngam dumpo ngam. ( In Nyishi dialect, it means apa palang’s kids asking his father ” I want ears, I want nose, I want head). And the wife said “nyega ngam hang ngam”.(hubby I want heart). All apa palang family was climbing up with ropes hanging in hole. As they reached the top. Hadudachar untied the rope and put the hot burning stones inside the hole. Apa palang and his family screamed and cried in agony falling deep into the hole.
APA palang’s wife
And that’s how hadudachar killed apa palang’s whole family. Hadudachar became hero in that village. And live happy life with his wife and childrens. The word of his courageous act and heroism spread across other villages too.
That’s how the story passed by generation to generations through narrations without any written form. This is the only place where you will find this story which was passed by my mom to me. I want to keep it in digital form in this blog, so that everyone can access to it and will pass this story to upcoming generations.
Our tribal folktales are all passed by orally, there is no written records. They will vanish after some years so I am searching for more tribal folktales and true stories from different tribes of Arunachal pradesh. So, if anyone knows such stories please do contact me.Watsapp Thank you for reading. Please comment your views and don’t forget to like, follow and share.☺️
Nyishi men Performing ritualsMithun Sacrifice on festivals
The Arunachal Pradesh is inhabited by several ethnic groups and tribes. Each of them has distinct culture, traditions, faith and belief, customs and customary law, different social and economic pattern. The land was known as a “hidden land’ by earlier writers. The Nyishi tribe is the largest tribes of Arunachal Pradesh. Genealogically the Nyishi is descendant of the great ancestor Aabhu Thanyi. They are divided into three major clans namely Dopum, Dodum and Dollu.They inhabit in five districts of Arunachal Pradesh viz Papum Pare, Lower subansiri, Upper Subansiri, Kurung Khumey, East Kamang, West Kameng, Kara Dadi and some parts of the state of Assam. The traditional law is one such institution. Nyishi have certain mechanism to regulate them. One such legal institution is called Nyelee (formal gathering of people) to resolve the Yallung (disputes). There are other mechanisms like oaths and ordeals. Dingdung and Sudung enam (boil water ordeal). There are also omen examinations like Peepchenam (boil egg examination) Pachu Kuknam/RuksingKanam (chicken liver examination), Reksing Kanam /keenam (pig liver examination).
The rituals play vital role in the Nyishi life. There are several rituals for separate and specific purpose. The article is an attempt to classify the rituals with and its purpose will also be point out. There is no distinction between ritual and the customs.
There is ritual in every steps of Nyishi life which is like oxygen to living creatures. The rituals of Nyishi may be grouped as follows:
(a) Rituals related to creation (b) Rituals related to agricultural (c) Rituals for immediate healing (d) Rituals for treatment and medication (e) Rituals for inflicting opponent (f) Rituals for purification and reconciliation (g) Rituals related to death of human (h) Rituals for omen (i) Ritual related to oath and ordeals) (j) Ritual related to peace, prosperity and for the protection
(a) Rituals related to creation: The rituals related to creation may be divided as follows.
(i) Chene yella paanam: This ritual is performed by individual who face problems like miscarriage stillborn and those who are childless. They performed this to get blessing from the creator called chan /chenee. (ii) Ku aming mingnam (child birth and naming): During the child birth some one has to utter the words nageke (its my) to claim the ownership of the child and to prevent the evil spirit from claiming the ownership of child. There is rituals called ku aming mingnam (child naming ceremony) which is done in the name of different deities like sun, moon, changtum-buthe etc, and blessing is sought from all the god and goddess for the child bright future.
Testing local wineChief Minister pema khandu(mid) on Nyishi attire.
(b) Rituals related to agricultural: The agricultural activity of Nyishi depends on the nature/ seasons. The animals, birds, plant; flowers and orchids are the guide and master of the Nyishi agriculture calendar. It is nature which guides when to start reetekteeknam / panam/ rangho panam (clearance of agricultural plot) and when to sow seed.
(i) Accordingly Nyishi goes for omen examination to know compatibility of that particular plot of land. Generally the Rongho panam (clearing of forest) started with nyoka kanam (survey and demarcation of plot) in the month of liib (October-November months) which continued till rath/rathe (December-January month). By this month the deb/deb chanam (seasonal birds) started making lot of hum and give indication for agricultural activities. After clearing the forest, they keep the plot for a month or half so that the forest material is dried and ready for burning which is followed by eime/amea rehnam (burning), rekram ram nam (clearance of left out wood and ashes) and kept in particular spot called paye in step wise. The some left out are again set on fire after gathering at a particular spot which is called maram parnam/maramramnam. The spreading/sowing of seeds started simultaneously with erection of sulung (fencing) in the month of Leemmi (February-March) which may continue till lacher and lakhang months (April- May). They build small hut called tabiyo in the rangho for taking rest and used as warehouse. It is followed by uangmanam /rehuhonam (clearing of weeds). The seeds and crops are protected from birds and animals by vigil it right from the seedling till completion of harvesting, which is called deer kanam/ deer ruhknam or pou patah/seebbe kanam).
Nyishi Yapa (Youth)Nyishi girl
(ii) Amjedinam/aum denam (feast on first harvested paddy): The harvesting begins with occasion called amji denam/ aumdenam. The feast is organized by individual or jointly. On this occasion, people from village or their relatives are invited. Only harvested rice and wine along with meat are served and no green leaves are used. Any left out or surplus, especially rice is not throwing into the flowing river or streams. Thus, it ended with Jerpye le eknam (closing ceremony of harvesting). (iii) Cheerm yullu bonam/jarpe leeknam (rituals to solicit the souls of crops): This is the last ritual to bring last grain into nasu (granary) which is celebrated annually. This ritual is to seek blessing from pert ringt/cherman molo (god and goddess of food grains). On this occasion, people of village collectivity carry all the equipments from the field to granary/house. If there is any river or stream in between the field and home, to be crossed, sabbe sahya/ahyea (cane ropefor tying Bos-frontalis) is passed from one side of river to other side of the river to help the souls of grain to cross the river. If there is any junction on the way, taki (ginger) is used to block the unwanted direction to prevent grain souls from follow other paths. The bunch of paddy is brought to the house and preserved at house. This is followed by merry making with opo (wine), adding (meat), aching (rice), cazi (meat and rice mixed food). The traditional songs like gumbabanam, Iedebengnam, nugung hangman, Pagu tonam, niting tingnam,haarming mengnam, are parts of the occasion. With this, formal harvesting process comes to an end.
Performing Rituals on Nyokum
The priest invocked the crops souls and god and goddess of crops to bless more and more in future.
(c)Rituals for immediate healing: The rituals for immediate healing can be divided into following subheadings.
(i) Oram paknam: It is chanting to driving away the evil spirit/ ghost. The evil spirit/ghost is satisfied with certain offerings. The oram paknam is performed when there is sudden illness of a person due to expose to prey of evil spirit) like (a) Ramterr oram (b) Ramshey oram (c) Telang/sunu (d) Tapum oram and (e) Piji. (ii) Tanying rasang (spirits of animal/ dwell in the skeleton of animal): Nyishi believes that the spirit called tinying rasang creates heart trouble. In order to relieve the suffering person the priests perform this ritual by inquiring and offering to souls of animals. (iii) Dapa cheeynam (rituals for food poison): This ritual is performed when a person is suffering from food poisoning or any other poison.
Rituals for treatment and medication: The rituals for treatment and medication are performed by few people in Nyishi community. They are believed to be god gifted one having the knowledge of treatment and medication. Let us discuss them one by one as follows:
(d)Ritual related to curative purpose (i) Zaree nanam (repairing of broken parts of body or injury): This zaree ritual is performed by the priest using khokam mayam (eagle wing). Only the right wing of the eagle is used. The priest chants and invokes the blessing of super nature power through nyoki heenam (invocation) for the purpose of repairing the broken parts of human body. When suppernatural power listens to the chanting of nyub, it comes and releases a drop of its power into the wings of eagle which is in the hand of nyub. When that is received, the nyub put that gums like drop on the injured body and rube it for some time. The nyub may repeat this for three or four times if required. It has been proved that, it is even better treatment than the treatment provided by modern medical science. There are many living examples that have benefited from this treatment. The nyub who perform zaree ritual is called nyoke nyub. (ii) Dawab nanam (cleaning of body): In this dawab nanam ritual the nyub takes out insects and other foreign bodies from the ailing person body. It is believed that these foreign bodies causes ailment. Thus, when these foreign bodies are destroyed and the suffering person get cured.
Pachung kunam ( chicken liver rituals)
(iii) Doli mingnam (killing of epidemic): Nyishi believe that doli (epidemic) is caused by the evil spirit which affects the human body. The nyub has the natural and spiritual power to see and kill the evil spirit which causes epidemics. Thus, a nyub can prevent and protect the human being from epidemics. (vii) Ache pench neeknam (curing of women breast pain): When the lady is suffering form breast trouble, a man performs pench neeknam ritual. This ritual is done only by a man using eggik (quiver) and bow in reverse direction and step in from bathung (porch) of the house uttering words like ache penchee nomacho and pricks the breast of the women with bow. If the trouble is because ache penchee it gets cured.
(e) Rituals for inflicting opponent: Nyishi had the practice of inflicting the opponent or targeted person, family or clan by sending evil spirit to take the life of such an opponent or the targeted person. There are many rituals for this and is divided as follows. (i) Sotung tungnam (black magic): Sotung is performed in very rare case to inflict the targeted person, family or clan. If the sotung ritual is succeeded, it eliminates the targeted person. The sotung can be performed by only few nyub. It is performed secretly to avoid opponent’s knowledge of it. If it comes to the knowledge of opponent they may also perform same sotung to avert or divert the spirit. If the spirit is diverted it may cause injury to family of sender or nyub himself. Therefore people perform it rarely. (ii) Yallu nonam (enticing of soul): In this ritual nyub entice the soul of a targeted person through invocation. The soul is entices to enter into an open egg or a blood of animals. When the soul enters the spot nyub kills that soul. Thus, the person whose soul is enticed and killed by nyub dies shortly. However; this ritual is also performed for good cause like freeing and saving the lives of human from the hand of enemy and uyus. (iii) Boser sonam/pekhi myanam (immobilizing the soul of animal or human): This ritual is performed when a human or uncommon animal like Tiger, lion, python and elephants are killed. The purpose of ritual is to immobilize the souls of killed human or animals so that they may not able to avenge the man who killed them. It is led by a nyub followed by men with weapon and war dress. (iv) Gamtoy tanam/beenam (cursing by calling the super natural power and evil spirit): This ritual is performed by an individual in order to ventilate the tension or sentiment by way of cursing the other by invoking the different spirits and natural objects and dangerous animals as witness saying that so long I am not wrong I should get justice and those who does wrong must be get punishment. It is believed that person is innocent the targeted person suffered. No priest is required for this ritual. (v) Preya peenam (hypnotizing): This ritual is performed by a priest at the request of needy person to change the mind or attitude of the targeted person. It is believed that nyub can control the soul and mind of a person with the help of spirit. A person is affected by this ritual act according to the wishes of the nyub and interested party. For example, in case of elopement the nyub performs this ritual to bring backs the eloped person. (vi) Riyatar (for protection and prosperity): The Riyatar is performed for the protection, fortune and prosperity of the family and clan etc. The Riyatar is performed on different occasions like, house warming, against enemy and for well being of family. A paruk rokpu tallongbu/langchang buo (red cock) is sacrifices at small altar, the liver of scarifies cock is examined by the priest and other experts to identify if there is any indication. The women and people from other clan are not allowed to eat the meat of sacrificed cock. However, man of same clan can share and eat the sacrifice meat together which is known as uyee hang dabam nam (sharing of blood and heart by clan member). (vii) Riyakum peanam (seeking more strength to defeat opponent): The ritual is performed when the party is having a strong opponent and apprehension of being defeated by opponent. This ritual is for gaining confidence, courage and to get blessings from Anne Donyi (mother Sun) and ritual is performed in a secret place.
Nyishi Nyijir (Nyishi lady)
(f) Rituals related to purification:
(i) Pahihenam (Purification): The ritual called pahi henam is performed in different occasion for different purpose. This ritual is for purification and sign of reconciliation and mutual agreement. In this ritual, animal is killed and meat is shared among the people. (ii) Mochum paanam (purification of fire spirit): This ritual is performed after a fire accident in order to prevent any further fire accidents. The rituals performed in the river or stream. The blood of scarified animals is spread after blocking the water course. Any person directly or indirectly related to such fire accident is asked to take bath and open the blocking point so that the blood stains on the river bed is washed away. Thus, the fire god is satisfied and evil spirit is averted.
(g) Rituals related to death of human: There are different types of rituals related to death of a human. These rituals are performed after the death of a person and it is divided as follows:
(i) Nyoku kanam (send up): This ritual is performed after the death of a person. The nyub chants in order to escort the soul of death person to uyu nyoku (Nether land) and for peaceful, so that the soul of death person does not hang around and creates trouble to living person. (ii) Darkha naam (purification): This ritual is performed on the burial spot during the burial activities to prevent the spread of any disease. In this ritual all person involved in the burial activities and family members are purified with chanting by priest. This ritual is also performed after any inauspicious activities in any form for purification.
(iii) Seerm angnam (bathing/cleaning after burial activity): People who are engaged in burial activities like digging of grave, collections of material for construction of nyubung (tomb), etc are to go to water sources for wash themselves before they goes back to dwelling houses. (iv) Bungu panam (sacrifice of animals in the name of dead person): Generally Nyishi people sacrifices animals when they lost their beloved family member. It indicates the degree of emotion and attachment with departed soul. The meat is distributed among the people present. But such meat is not eaten by priest and used separate utensil for cooking such meat. (v) Aeer donam (mourning period): The death of person is treated as inauspicious so people do not goes for work specially agriculture and hunting activities at least for 2 to 5 days in the village where person died. The nearby village may also joined mourn by restricting themselves to few house hold activities. (vi) Sangree tangnam/panam (felling of banyans tree): In certain situation the family member may avenge the death of person by felling banyans tree. They may also kill the certain animals and birds as revenge to death of a person.
Nyishi kid
(h) Rituals related to omen examination:
This ritual is done for all the purpose indiscriminately from smallest to biggest event for ascertaining fortune, peace, justice and prosperity etc. There are different types of ritual related to omen examinations such as peep cheenam (boiled egg omen examination), pachung kuknam/rukseeng kanam (chicken liver examination), reekseeng kanam/Keenam (pig liver examination), yuma tungnam/ kanam (mock dream ritual). These rituals are the life line of Nyishi which help to detect past, present and the future of any individual as well as family and clan. (i) Dingnam/dingdung (ritual related to oaths and ordeals): The Nyishi people believe that the highest form of justice can be achieved through the intervention of the supernatural power; therefore, they practice oaths and ordeals. There are different types of oaths and ordeals, such as swearing in the name of anne donyi (mother sun), pathe (tiger and lion), sathe (elephant), burdojang (crocodile),tabbe (poisonous snake). The accused person is asked to bite stone, swords, and remains of tiger, elephant, snake etc. It is believed that anyone who swears falsely is killed by these animals and object. The highest and last stage of getting justice is through an ordeal. There are different types of ordeal practiced among the Nyishi. These ordeals are used in the administration of justice. Some of the important ordeals are sodung enam (boiling water ordeals): In this ordeal the suspected person is asked to deep their hand inside the boiling water. Another ordeal is rukdar gobangnam (catching of hot iron). In both the cases, if there is any sing of blister in the hand of accused person then that is regard as sign of crime committed. If no sign of injury then the person is declared innocent. In this ordeal, both the parties are represented by priest by invoking the supernatural power to punish the guilty and to protect the innocent. After the ordeal, suitable penalties are handed to the party found guilty.
(j) Ritual related to peace prosperity and for the protection: There are different types of rituals practice among the Nyishi. It is divided as follows.
(i) Yullow panam: The yullow panam/meanam ritual is celebrated at family, village and clan level for peace, prosperity and protection. This is the highest form of rituals in the individual level in the Nyishi society. (ii) Uyu panam: The uyu panam ritual is for the individual who is suffering from illness. It is performed for the protection of life and soul of ailing person. (iii) Nyokum yullow, bori yullow and longte yullow: These are the highest form of rituals celebrated by the Nyishi in common. These rituals are celebrated by the Nyishi annually. These are performed for peace, prosperity, protection, fortune and for bumper agriculture products, better animal’s husbandry and for productive hunting and fishing. In all these occasion, merry making is essential parts without discriminating caste, creed, color and religion. In all the rituals, sacrifice of animal is common. If any dispute arises it is settled as per the customary laws.
(h) Rituals Related to marriage The Nyishi marriage began with omen examination like peep cheenam( egg examination), pachung kuknam( chicken liver examination), Reesing Kheenam( pig liver examination). It is followed by dapo dingnam (invocation of god and goddess and nature to witness and stand as unbiased in time of necessity. In the day of actual weeding and reaching grooms house they perform Chngtun Phahi (purification ritual) and changtum Bheenam (thanks giving rituals) for their success in marriying and getting ornaments and also for future well being.
References:
1. Gram Wall ‘Report of the preliminary notes on Daphla’1897 P – 255. 2. W. Robinson notes on ‘The Daphlas and the familiarities of their language’1851-xx, p- 129. 3. E T Dalton ‘On the Miris and Abors of Assam’JASIB – XIV 1845 P-420.and descriptive Ethnology of Bengal; Indian studies past and present, Calcutta, p39. 4. R.B Pemberton, Report on the eastern frontier of British India’ Calcutta 1835, p7. 5. L-A Waddel, The tribes of the Brahmaputra valley, New Delhi (Reprinted) 1986, p – 42. 6. G-A Grirson, Linguistic survey of India’ Vol.-III part 1 (reprinted 1990, p-585). 7. A.M Meerwarth, Ethnographical gallery India museum’ Calcutta 1919 P-21. 8. N.L Bor, The Daflas and their oaths’ JASB Vol.-II 1936 Article No 4 P-27. 9. P.C Basu, Head dress of the Hill Tribe of Assam’ JASB, 1929 XXV Article No 2, p 104. 10. Bolle Kees W, Myths, an overview in Micoa Eliade general. (ed.) 1987 The Encyclopedia of religion New York, 1987, pp 296. 11. Ibid, p-262. I
The supernatural human being of Arunachal Pradesh.
Half human half animalImage used for Illustration only.
MOST FAMOUS LEGEND CHUKHU TOPU – THE MOST FAMOUS NYISHI LEGEND KNOWN FOR SUPERNATURAL MYSTERY AND MIRACLE WHO LIVED BOTH IN THE PHYSICAL HUMAN WORLD AND SUPERNATURAL VIRTUAL UNDERWORLD: (It is not fully narrated and may not be near to the truth but just a glance or a brief story only. Otherwise his stories and tales about him is huge and numerous).
THE NAME: CHUKHU TOPU: Have you ever heard the name of CHUKHU TOPU, the most famous and legendary Therianthropist- one who has the ability to metamorphose into other animals by means of shapeshifting?
IN BRIEF: He was very famous and popularly known to have lived both in the underworld realms-devil or evil or supernatural world as well as in the human physically world.
Chukhu Topu’ Real Image
It is narrated that he could transform himself as tiger, wild pig/hog and any animal forms. While he was in his shapeshifting like in the form of wild hog, tiger and sneak into villagers paddy field he was killed many times with the aconites (very poisonous materials used in th arrows for spot sure killing).
It is told that his wives and children came to his human house in the form of pythons etc
It sounds funny and incredible. But he lived with those famous mysterious tales and stories.
Chukhu Topu was a very infamous shapeshifter or Therianthropist- some use to call him Gwnbo Topu, Ganriang Topu, Ganyi Topu, Konyi Topu etc. He was known as notorious transformer or Therianthropist but with while in the estate of human spirit.
THE MYSTERIOUS BEGINNING: The mysterious life of Late Chukhu Topu started with a story of hunting in a jungle. While chasing after a wounded deer for so long in the deep jungle, he came across a natural lake where he coincidentally saw a snake caugth a frog near that natural lake. Mysteryman Chukhu Topu saw that a frog was helpless and crying loudly for help as snake had bitten the frog.
Then Chukhu Topu felt pity on the frog and saved the frog from the mouth of the snake. Frog quickly jump into that natural lake.
After a while an old man came out of the water and thanked late Chukhu Topu saying “thank you for you have saved my daughter from the snake- devil”.
Later, the old man asked him to accompany him to his house which is said to be inside that natural lake. Marvelled at what the oldman was saying, Chukhu Topu asked him how would they go into that natural lake inside the water and asked how comes it is possible that a house could be inside that natural lake.
The oldman took a stick and beat the water and water in the lake opened up and he could see a house, within few second late Chukhu Topu could found himself already inside a huge Nyishi House. The old man point at a very beautiful girl saying, she is the one whom you have saved from the snake- other devil.
Later late Chukhu Topu was asked to marry with that girl and then he lived there inside the lake years after years with that girl as his wife and had childrens too.
But the human family members of Chukhu Topu constinuously hired and engaged expert local priests every year and those local Priests used all their powers to trace out Chukhu Topu. Those local expert priests did all their level best to search Chukhu Topu but invain. Late Chukhu Topu narrated that the throwing of rice with a chanting or mantra by the local Priests which use to come in the form of rain to their house, sometimes an eagle use to fly over their house in search of Topu.
After many years finally, Chukhu Topu was released and sent back to his human family.
But when Chukhu Topu returned to his original home, all the people were amazed at Chukhu Topu and wondered how it could be possible to live so long in the jungle who was lost for many years and come back alive in fit and fine conditions.
After returned to his real home. Chukhu Topu lived with his human family but he still could contact and talk to his underworld family-wife and children from time to time. And from time to time his underworld family members use to come and visit Chukhu Topu’s physical world house but not in the human form but in the form of Pythons.
The irony of the story is that while Chukhu Topu was living with the human world he became very notorious as he use to transform himself as tiger, wild pig etc and destroy the crops like paddy field or the other agriculture yieldings of the villagers. The villagers knew that it was Chukhu Topu who did all the damages to the crops of the villagers. And while he was damaging the crops of the villagers Chukhu Topu was killed many times but still he use to escape and returns to human form time and again and again.
This sounds incredible but it is the stories famously known and narrated in our Nyishi regions.
Finally, he died in 2007 at Chiputa area.
This brief story about Chukhu Topu may not be very correct or contradicts to others first hand accounts. But it is shared or posted just for an eye opening or thought provoking purpose only. Others may kindly supplement or give more inputs to the story in the comment section.
chinki munda 